perm filename MUS10.LCS[UP,DOC]2 blob
sn#340972 filedate 1978-03-14 generic text, type T, neo UTF8
IRCAM, PARIS and STANFORD ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE LABORATORY May 1977
**** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT **** DRAFT ***
Music Manual
by
Tovar
as edited by Leland Smith
ABSTRACT:
This document describes the compiler/interpeter, MUS10, used in the
IRCAM-Stanford Computer Music System. It includes a description of
the language and its use. MUS10 is a modified version of Stanford's
MUSCMP which is an extended version of Stanford's original music
program which was written by David W. Poole. That program was a
descendant of MUSIC IV, written by Max W. Mathews.
Music Manual
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S
SECTION PAGE
Section 1 Introduction
Section 2 Declarations
2-1 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2-2 Variable Declaration . . . . . . . . . 6
2-3 Array Declaration . . . . . . . . . . 7
2-4 Function Declaration . . . . . . . . . 8
2-5 Instrument Declaration . . . . . . . . 9
Section 3 Expressions
3-1 Function Call: . . . . . . . . . . 11
3-2 Unit Generator Call . . . . . . . . 11
3-3 Array Subscripting . . . . . . . . 11
Section 4 Statements
4-1 Function Call: . . . . . . . . . . 13
4-2 Unit Generator Call . . . . . . . . 13
4-3 Assignment Statement . . . . . . . . 14
4-4 WHILE Statement . . . . . . . . . 14
4-5 UNTIL Statement . . . . . . . . . 14
4-6 FOR Statement . . . . . . . . . . 15
4-7 PRINT Statement . . . . . . . . . 15
4-8 Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4-9 RETURN Statement . . . . . . . . . 17
4-10 DONE and EXIT Statements . . . . . . 14
Section 5 Extended Commands 17
Section 6 Unit Generators
6-1 Controlled Calling Rates . . . . . . 19
6-2 VFMULT . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6-3 LINEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6-4 VALUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6-5 The OSCIL family of Unit Generators . . . 21
6-6 The ZOSCIL Family of Unit Generators . . 22
6-7 The RAND Family of Unit Generators . . . 24
6-8 Reverberators, Delays, and Filters . . . 24
Section 7 Built-in Functions
7-1 SYNTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Page i
Music Manual
7-2 SEG . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7-4 SETMAG . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7-5 PRINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
7-6 RDNUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7-7 LENGTH . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7-8 RAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7-9 INT . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Section 8 Computing sound
8-1 PLAY Block . . . . . . . . . . . 31
8-2 Instrument Call . . . . . . . . . 32
8-3 FINISH statement . . . . . . . . . 34
Appendix A Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Appendix B Reserved Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Appendix C Predefined Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Appendix D Error Messages. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Appendix E Some recent improvements . . . . . . . . . 47
Music Manual
Section 1
_______ _
Introduction
____________
The music compiler features a subset of ALGOL with special operations
directed toward music synthesis. There are three modes the compiler
can be in. It can be in COMPILE mode, where instrument definitions
are accepted and compiled. It can be in PLAY mode, where it accepts a
note list and invokes these instruments to generate a sound waveform.
If you are not in either COMPILE or PLAY mode, you are in
interpretive mode, where any ALGOL statements given get interpreted
on the spot.
Music Manual
Section 2
_______ _
Declarations
____________
2-1. Identifiers
___________
<identifier> ::= <letter>{<alphanumeric>}
<alphanumeric> ::= <letter>|<number>
<letter> ::= A|B|C|...Z|_|$|#
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|...9
An identifier always begins with a letter and may be followed with
any number of letters or digits. There are three characters which
are treated as letters, $, # and _. Lower case letters are converted
_ _ _
to upper case. Certain identifiers have special meanings which may
not be used as names for variables, functions, arrays or instruments.
There are two kinds, P and U variables, which are of the form
P<number> and U<number> (see below) and reserved words like ARRAY or
_ _ _____
BEGIN. A list of reserved words is contained in Section 2.
_____
2-2. Variable Declaration
________ ___________
<variable declaration> ::= VARIABLE <identifier>{,<identifier>};
All variables must be declared before they are used. A variable
declaration consists of the reserved word VARIABLE followed by a list
of identifiers to be declared as variables. All variables must be
declared before they are used.
If variables are to be used during R-Time (see Section ), they must
be declared as R-Time variable by preceding each variable name with a
slash in their declaration.
There are certain variables, P1,P2,P3,..Pn and U1,U2,U3,...Un which
have special meanings. Pn is the nth element of the P Array, which is
the list of parameters to an instrument. Within an instrument
definition, Un is the output of the nth unit generator within that
instrument definition.
Music Manual Declarations
All variables are stored in floating point representation, with two
exceptions. One exception is in function definitions, where the data
types STRING and INTEGER are also allowed, for compatability with
external FORTRAN callable subroutines. The second exceptions are P-
variables, which do not have a specific type associated with them.
This means they can be used as variables, arrays, and so forth
without regard to type, hence one must be careful using them as one
can easily make the mistake of using a number instead of an array
with most unpredicatable results (usually causes an ILL MEM REF, or
___ ___ ___
illegal memory reference).
Example:
VARIABLE A,B,/C,D,/RT; COMMENT Declares A,B,D to be I-Time variables
Declares C,RT to be R-Time variables;
2-3. Array Declaration
_____ ___________
<array declaration> ::= ARRAY <array decl. list>
<array decl. list> ::= <variable>[(<constant>)]
{,<array decl. list>}|
<variable>(<constant>)
All arrays must be declared before they are used and contain numbers
in floating point representation. An array declaration consists of
the reserved word ARRAY followed by a list consisting of the
identifier followed by the array size in parenthesis, separated by
commas. If there are several arrays of the same size, the size may
be omitted on all but the last array of that size. Arrays are
currently restricted to single subscripts and elements are numbered
from 0 to n-1. Arrays within blocks are not dynamically allocated(1);
they are allocated at compile time, hence they must be a fixed size.
Take note that arrays are not initialized and may contain practically
anything.
Example:
ARRAY F1,F2,F3(512),BAZ(2000); COMMENT Declares F1, F2, F3 to be
arrays of length 512, BAZ to be an
array of length 2000;
Note: Array subscripts always start with 0 and thus have a maximum
subscript of one less than the size of the array. Thus, F3[511] is
_______
_______________________
(1) Dynamic allocation may be implemented in the future.
Music Manual Declarations
the last element of the array F3 defined in the example. See Page x
__
for details on referencing elements of an array.
2-4. Function Declaration
________ ___________
<function declaration> ::= FUNCTION <identifier>(<formal list>)
<function tail>|
EXTERNAL FUNCTION <identifier>
(<formal list>)
<formal list> ::= <formal declaration>{,<formal list>}
<formal declaration> ::= ARRAY <identifier> |
INTEGER <identifier>|
STRING <identifier> |
<identifier>
<function tail> ::= ; <block> | = <expression>
A function declaration defines a function in MUSCMP. A function
takes from 0 to n arguments, which may be variables, arrays, string
constants or expressions and returns a value, which is a real number.
Functions are executed at either I-time or R-time, depending on the
arguments at the time they are called (see Page ).
The function declaration includes a list of formal parameters, which
represent their respective actual arguments when the function is
called. The formal parameters are local variables in terms of scope,
that is they are known only within the function which they are
declared. Their use outside that function will have one of three
results. If the variable is not defined outside that function, an
error message will be issued. If it is defined to be of a different
type, an error message will also be issued, except in a PLAY list
where type checking is not as stringent (for details, see Page 31).
If it is defined outside the function to be of the same type, no
error message will occur, the result is likely not to be what was
intended.
Functions are always called by reference(1), which means that if an
assignment is done to one of the formal parameters, the argument
itself will be modified. Such assignments are strongly discouraged,
since if the function is called with a constant as an argument, the
constant's value will be changed, which usually has disastorous and
mysterious results!
There are three forms of function declaration. In the first form,
_______________________
(1) This is the standard FORTRAN IV calling sequence on the PDP-10.
Music Manual Declarations
the value of the function is the value of the expression to the right
of the '='. For example, the following function calculates the cube
of a number.
FUNCTION CUBE(X) = X * X * X;
PRINT CUBE(2);
8.
The second form is used for more complex functions. Its value is the
expression part of the last RETURN statement executed within that
function, as there may be more than one RETURN statement in a
function. For example, the following function returns the maximum
amplitude of an waveform contained in an array. (Note that at IRCAM
the lineprinter always prints the symbol 'left arrow' as an underline.)
FUNCTION AMPLITUDE(ARRAY M);
BEGIN VARIABLE I,MAX;
MAX←0; COMMENT Initialize maximum amplitude;
FOR I ← 0 STEP 1 UNTIL LENGTH(M)-1
DO IF ABS(M[I])>MAX THEN MAX←ABS(M[I]);
COMMENT Compare each element with
current maximum;
RETURN MAX; COMMENT The value of the function is
the maximum amplitude found;
END;
The third form is used for functions written in FORTRAN or machine
code. It defines the argument list which the function expects to see
and fetchs the address from DDT's symbol table. This means that you
must to use the same name for the function as was written in the
program or MUSCMP will not find its address! The following is an
example of this form of declaration.
EXTERNAL FUNCTION SQRT(X);
WARNING: The syntax for formal declaration may be changed someday to
conform to ALGOL.
2-5. Instrument Declaration
__________ ___________
<instrument declaration>::= INSTRUMENT <identifier>;
<declaration list>;<statement list>
Music Manual
Section 3
_______ _
Expressions
___________
<expression> ::= <simple expr><relop><simple expr>|<simple expr>
<simple expr> ::= <term>|<term><addop><simple expr>
<term> ::= <factor>|<factor><mulop><term>
<factor> ::= <primary>
<primary> ::= -<primary>|(<expression>)|<function call>|
<unit generator call>|<variable>←<expression>|
<variable>|<array ref>|<constant>
<array ref> ::= <array name>[<expression>]
<relop> ::= <|=|>|α≤|}|≥
<addop> ::= +|-
<mulop> ::= *|/
Expressions are like algebraic formulae with certain changes required
so that they may be typed on a keyboard. For example, '*' is used
instead of 'x' and '/' has been used to indicate division. The use
of parenthesis is similar, but the following:
3+4x5
7x2
should be written as (3+4*5)/(7*2), not 3+4*5/7*2. When in doubt,
_____________ _________
put in the extra parenthesis. In mathematical notation, there is an
implied multiplication frequently used which must be stated
explicitly in MUSCMP, therefore 2x+3 should be written as 2*X+3. It
_____
is also necessary to explicitly parenthesize the arguments to
functions which would not be required in mathematical notation, for
example, sin x should be written as SIN(X).
______
Relational operators, (as in x > 4) are defined to evaluate to 0 if
false and 1 if true. One should use care with the operators '=' and
'}' as floating point arithmetic is not exact(1) discussion. For
example:
PRINT 3/5+2/5 = 1;
0
_______________________
(1) See Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Section 4.2.2 (Vol.
___ ___ __ ________ ___________
II) if you really want to know about this.
Music Manual Expressions
3-1. Function Call:
________ _____
<function call> ::= <function>(<parameter list>)
<parameter list>::= <parameter>,<parameter list>|<parameter>
<parameter> ::= <expression>|<array>|<string constant>
A function call consists of the function name followed by a list of
parameters separated by commas and enclosed by parenthesis. The
effect is to call the function (or subroutine) with that list of
parameters. If the function is not defined to return a value, such
as a FORTRAN subroutine, the value of the function is undefined and
may be almost anything. For additional information on functions, see
Page 5. For descriptions of the built-in functions available, see
Page 25.
Example:
PRINT SQRT(2);
1.414213
3-2. Unit Generator Call
____ _________ ____
A unit generator is a special kind of function, as it may contain
both at I-time and R-time code and requires special initialization,
Hence a unit generator call is only legal within an instrument. Note
that a unit generator call within an expression can not be refered to
by Un. Only unit generators used as statements are counted for U
_ _
symbols. See Section 6.
3-3. Array Subscripting
_____ ____________
<array ref> ::= <array name>[<expression>]
One can reference particular elements of an array by following the
array name with the index in square brackets(1). Thus, F1[5] refers
_____
_______________________
(1) Parentheses are also acceptable here.
Music Manual Expressions
to element number 5 in the array F1. Since arrays are always contain
__
floating point numbers, the construction F1[5] represents a single
_____
floating point number and can be used like a variable.
It is important to note that arrays start with element number 0 and
thus if an array F1 is of size n, the last element of the array is
__
F1[n-1]. For example, the following loads an array, F1, with one
___ __
cycle of a sine wave:
ARRAY F1(512);
BEGIN VARIABLE I;
FOR I←0 STEP 1 UNTIL 512-1
DO F1[I]←SIN(I/512);
END;
The index, also known as the subscript, is checked for being within
range, with one important exception. In instruments, array
references done at R-Time are not checked for efficiency reasons. If
an array reference is out of bounds, i.e. less than 0 or greater than
or equal to the array size, a diagnostic is printed. For example:
I←512;
PRINT F1[I];
Subscript of out bounds for array F1, subscript = 512
??
It should be noted that since number is stored in floating point
representation, it must be converted to an integer before referencing
the array element. This conversion is accomplished by the INT
___
function (see Page 28) and is NOT the same as rounding. If
multiplication or division is done on floating point numbers, one
often gets something like 4.99999 instead of 5.0 as a result and when
this is used as a index, it will give the element number 4 instead of
5 as one might naively expect.
Music Manual
Section 4
_______ _
Statements
__________
<statement> ::= <function call>|<unit generator call>|
<WHILE statement>|<UNTIL statement>|
<FOR statement>|<conditional statement>|
<PRINT statement>|<assignment statement>|
<RETURN statement>|EXIT|DONE|
<block>
4-1. Function Call:
________ _____
<function call> ::= <function>(<parameter list>)
<parameter list>::= <parameter>,<parameter list>|<parameter>
<parameter> ::= <expression>|<array>|<string constant>
A function call consists of the function name followed by a list of
parameters separated by commas and enclosed by parenthesis. The
effect is to call the function (or subroutine) with that list of
parameters. If the function returns a value, that value is lost.
Example:
SYNTH(F1); COMMENT Call the function SYNTH with F1
as an argument;
4-2. Unit Generator Call
____ _________ ____
<unit generator call> ::= <unit generator>(<parameter list>)|
<unit generator>[<expression>](<parameter list>)
A unit generator is a special kind of function, as it may contain
both at I-time and R-time code and requires special initialization,
Hence a unit generator call is only legal within an instrument. The
value of nth unit generator in an instrument can be refered to by Un.
_
Only unit generators used as statements are counted for U symbols, if
_
a unit generator is used with an expression it is not counted. See
Section 6.
Music Manual Statements
4-3. Assignment Statement
__________ _________
<assignment statement> ::= <variable>←<expression>
This statement assigns the value of the expression to the variable to
the left of the '←' Caution: Assignment to formal parameters of a
function can have unexpected results; see Page 5.
Example:
I←123; COMMENT Set the value of the variable 'I' to 123;
4-4. WHILE Statement
_____ _________
<WHILE statement> ::= WHILE <conditional> DO <statement>
A WHILE statement consists of the reserved word WHILE, an expression,
called the condition followed by the reserved word DO and a
statement. So long as the condition is true, i.e. not zero, the
statement will be repeated indefinitely. Generally, the statement
affects part of the condition and the statement eventually
terminates.
Example:
I←1; WHILE I<1000 DO PRINT(I←2*I);
2. 4. 8. 16. 32. 64. 128. 256. 512. 1024.
4-5. UNTIL Statement
_____ _________
<UNTIL Statement> ::= DO <statement> UNTIL <conditional>
An UNTIL statement is like an WHILE statement except that the
statement is executed before the condition and loop terminates when
the condition is true. It consists of the reserved word DO, a
statement followed by the reserved word UNTIL and an expression, the
condition.
Music Manual Statements
Example:
I←10; DO PRINT(I←I-1) UNTIL I≤0;
9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. 0
4-6. FOR Statement
___ _________
<FOR statement> ::= FOR <variable>←<expression> STEP <expression>
UNTIL <expression> DO <statement>
This performs the statement for each value of the variable, beginning
with the expression immediately following the '←' in steps defined by
the second expression until it is greater than the third expression.
The value of the variable will always be the last value which was
less than the third expression. If the first expression is greater
than the third expression, the statement will be skipped altogether
and the variable unchanged.
Example:
FOR I←0 STEP 2 UNTIL 20 PRINT(I);
0 2. 4. 6. 8. 10. 12. 14. 16. 18. 20.
4-7. PRINT Statement
_____ _________
<PRINT statement> ::= PRINT <print list>
<print list> ::= <expression>,<print list>|<expression>|
<string constant>,<print list>|
<string constant>
This types each number or string in the print list. Numbers are
printed in free field format with a trailing space. Strings are
printed without a leading or trailing space and may include any
character. To enter a double quote, precede it with '≡' and to enter
_
'≡', put in two consecutive '≡'s.
_ _
Music Manual Statements
Example:
PRINT "SQRT(2) = ",SQRT(2);
SQRT(2) = 1.41423
4-8. Block
_____
<block> ::= BEGIN <declaration list>;<statement list>
<declaration list> ::= <declaration>;<declaration list>|<declaration>
<statement list> ::= <statement>;<statement list>|END
A Block is a list of statements, bracketed by the reserved words,
BEGIN and END and separated by the semicolons. Anything declared
within a block is a local variable and therefore is not known outside
that block, but anything which is declared outside a block may be
referenced within that block provided that it has not been redefined.
Thus variable names within blocks maybe chosen without being
concerned with name conflicts. (See also discussion of local
variables in functions on Page 5.)
Example:
VARIABLE X; X←123; PRINT X;
123.
BEGIN VARIABLE X,Y; X←456; Y←789; PRINT X,Y; END;
456. 789.
PRINT X;
123.
PRINT Y;
ERROR: UNDEFINED IDENTIFIER Line = 7 /1
PRINT Y;
↑
??
Music Manual Statements
4-9. RETURN Statement
______ _________
<RETURN statement> ::= RETURN <expression>
A RETURN statement is only valid within a function definition. It is
______
used to terminate execution of a function and to return as the value
of that function, the expression immediately following the RETURN.
______
There may be more than one RETURN statement in a given function. See
______
Page 6) for more information and an example.
4-10. DONE and EXIT Statements
____ ___ ____ __________
A DONE statement is only valid within a FOR, WHILE, or UNTIL loop and
serves provide an alternative means of terminating execution of that
loop. There may be more than one DONE statement in a given loop. If
two loops are nested, the DONE only finishs from the innermost loop.
An EXIT statement provides for early termination of a block. Like
the DONE statement, it only exits the innermost block.
DONE statements can appear in blocks and EXIT statements can appear
in loops. In such cases, both the block and the loop are exited.
The following example illustrates several uses of EXIT and DONE
COMMENT Print the first 100 prime numbers;
VARIABLE N,I;
PRINT 2; COMMENT Only even prime;
FOR N←3 STEP 2 UNTIL 100 DO COMMENT Skip the rest of the evens;
BEGIN
FOR I←3 STEP 2 UNTIL N DO COMMENT Try each factor;
IF N = I*INT(N/I) COMMENT If it divides evenly, stop;
THEN EXIT COMMENT (Exits block and continues
outer FOR);
ELSE IF N/I<I COMMENT Don't bother past its square;
THEN DONE; COMMENT root. (Exits inner FOR);
PRINT N; COMMENT We found one;
END; COMMENT (of FOR loop);
Music Manual
Section 5
_______ _
Extended Commands
________ ________
These commands may be entered at the top level by preceding them with
an <alt mode> (which is echoed as $).
_
Exit: <alt mode>EXIT
____
Return to Monitor.
Play: <alt mode>P <integer>
____
Goes directly to the playback subroutine.
This routine is self-instructional.
Print: <altmode>PRINT <expression>;
_____
Prints the value of the expression. It used to only be an extended
command. It is now generalized as an regular statement and the
extended command is considered obsolete. See PRINT Statement on Page
12.
Reduce Core size: <alt mode>EXCISE
______ ____ ____
Reduces to the minimum core required.
DDT: <alt mode>DDT
___
Starts up RAID or DDT. [Not usually loaded in system version but may
be in other core images.]
Printing the Symbol Table: <alt mode><declarator> LIST
________ ___ ______ _____
This lists the contents of the symbol table. Please note that this
does not include symbols in inner blocks. The following types may be
listed:
VARIABLE
FUNCTION
ARRAY
INSTRUMENT
UNIT!GENERATOR
Music Manual
Section 6
_______ _
Unit Generators
____ __________
Consider producing the sound of a simple sine wave. If one had to
call the sine subroutine for each sample, it would take a long time
to compute a second of sound even at the lowest sampling rate.
Therefore, instead of calculating the function for every sample, an
array is filled with the values of the function. Then, for each
sample, the value is read out of the appropriate entry in the array,
instead of calculating it. Of course, for many kinds of functions,
the value will not be particularly accurate, but it is usually
adequate for use in music. There are unit generators which do
interpolation, instead of a simple array lookup, and these will
produce accurate enough values for most critical cases.
6-1. Controlled Calling Rates
__________ _______ _____
In many cases, a function does not change rapidly with time.
Therefore to save computer time, it would be desirable not to have to
call the unit generator for every sample. This, which is called a
controlled calling rate, is expressed by placing a bracketed
expression immediately following the unit generator name in a unit
generator call.
Example:
OSCIL[10](P4,10*MAG/P2,F1);
Calls the unit generator OSCIL every tenth sample, and uses the same
value for the other nine samples.
6-2. VFMULT
______
Argument list:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Subscript
3 - Array
Music Manual Unit Generators
VFMULT multiplies the first argument times the element of the array
described by the second argument. If the second argument is greater
than the array length, it is reduced by that array length until it is
within the size of the array.
6-3. LINEN
_____
Argument list:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Rise time
3 - Decay time
4 - Total time
5 - Array (length = 384)
6 - Initial point in array
This function uses a 384 word array in three sections, to generate an
envelope function with separate rise time, intermediate time and
decay time. The rise time and decay time are a function of the
second argument, third argument and the total time. Their values in
seconds may be calculated according to the following formula.
To obtain a rise time of .1 seconds and a decay time of .4 seconds,
LINEN(P4,.1,.4,P2,F1,TMP←0);
CAUTION: The initial point in array must be a variable and should
usually be zero. If it is a constant, you will clobber the value of
that constant with most unpredicable results. Furthermore, this
variable should be different for each unit generator call, or else
the unit generators will interfere with each other.
6-4. VALUE
_____
Argument list:
1 - Expression
VALUE is a special unit generator which returns its first parameter
as its value. Its sole reason for existence is to allow R-time
Music Manual Unit Generators
expressions to be evaluated with a controlled calling rate. For
example,
VALUE[100](RV←A*SIN(X));
stores the value of A*SIN(X) into the variable RV every 100 samples.
6-5. The OSCIL family of Unit Generators
___ _____ ______ __ ____ __________
OSCIL is short for oscillator. An OSCIL outputs successive values of
the function (or waveform) stored in an array. When it reaches the
end of that array, it 'wraps around' and starts back at the beginning
of the array. The rate at which it moves down the array is a
parameter called the increment, measured in array elements per
sample, which is equal to the frequency times the array length
divided by the sample rate. For convenience, there is a variable
called MAG which is set to 512/SRATE, 512 being the length of arrays
used here and SRATE being the sample rate. Since most functions used
with OSCIL range between -1 and 1, there is a parameter called the
amplitude, by which the value of the function is multiplied by to
produce the value of unit generator.
The usual order of arguments is:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Increment
3 - Array (length = 512)
The following are the many kinds of OSCIL's:
OSCIL:
_____
OSCIL always starts at the beginning of the array when the instrument
is called and will produce an error message if a negative increment
is supplied.
FOSCIL(faster oscil[slightly])is same but does not check for neg. inc.
NOSCIL:
______
NOSCIL always starts at the beginning of the array when the
instrument is called and will accept a negative argument. (Very use-
ful for FM sound.)
COSCIL:
______
COSCIL starts wherever it left off the last time that instrument was
Music Manual Unit Generators
called. (If there are more than one COSCIL's in an instrument, they
do not effect each other.) COSCIL will accept a negative argument.
(This is needed for legato effects.)
EXPEN:
_____
EXPEN always starts at the beginning of the array and instead of
'wrapping around' when it reachs the end, it always returns the final
value upon subsequent calls until the instrument starts a new note.
NOSCA:
_____
Argument list:
1 - Initial index in array
2 - Amplitude
3 - Increment
4 - Array (length = 512)
INTRP:
_____
Argument list:
1 - Input A
2 - Input B
3 - Increment
4 - Array (length = 512)
INTRP is an unusual variant of OSCIL which almost deserves to be in a
class of its own. Like OSCIL, it scans down the array, but instead
of multiplying by the amplitude, it interpolates between inputs A and
B. To be more exact, the output is given by A*X+B*(1-X), where X is
the array element(1). The contents of the array are expected to be
between 0 and 1 for normal usage.
6-6. The ZOSCIL Family of Unit Generators
___ ______ ______ __ ____ __________
The ZOSCIL family interpolates between the two closest array
elements, rather that doing a straight lookup. If it reaches the end
of an array, it will interpolate between the last element and the
first element, which may produce unexpected (but consistent) results
for discontinuous functions. ZOSCIL unit generators are useful were
higher accuracy or or smoothness is necessary, as for Chowning's FM
sounds. (Be careful of using ZOSCIL for an envelope. The inter-
polation from the end of the array back to location zero can cause
problems.)
_______________________
(1) Actually the calculation is done as A+X*(B-A)
_________
Music Manual Unit Generators
The typical paramenter list is:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Increment
3 - Array (length = 51)
The following are the various kinds of ZOSCIL.
ZOSCIL:
______
ZOSCIL always starts at the beginning of the array and will accept a
negative increment.
CZOSCIL:
_______
CZOSCIL interpolates between the two closest array elements, rather
that doing a straight lookup. Like COSCIL, it starts wherever it
left off the last time the instrument was called. CZOSCIL will accept
negative increment.
ZEXPEN:
______
ZEXPEN is like a EXPEN except ZEXPEN interpolates between the two
closest array elements, rather that doing a straight lookup. Like
EXPEN, instead of 'wrapping around' when it reachs the end, it always
returns the last value upon subsequent calls. (Good for single note
envelopes.)
ZOSCA:
_____
Argument list:
1 - Initial point in array
2 - Amplitude
3 - Increment
4 - Array (length = 512)
ZOSCA is a special form of ZOSCIL which sets where it starts in the
array to the value of the first argument.
ZINTRP:
______
Argument list:
1 - Input A
2 - Input B
3 - Increment
4 - Array (length = 512)
Music Manual Unit Generators
ZINTRP is like a INTRP except ZINTRP interpolates between the two
closest array elements to get a number to use to interpolate between
the two inputs! See description of INTRP on Page 20.
6-7. The RAND Family of Unit Generators
___ ____ ______ __ ____ __________
There are two random number generators that are available as unit
generators. These are RANDH and RANDI. Both of these generate a
pseudo-random number (via the linear congruential method) every so
often. The first argument to these unit generators is the amplitude
(it will go to plus and minus that number), and the second argument
is the frequency (times MAG, of course). RANDH will get a random
number and hold it for one period (the time of which is determined by
the second argument), whereas RANDI will interpolate linearly from
this point to the next.
Argument list:
1 - Amplitude
2 - Increment
For example, the following will generate five random numbers per
second between 440 and 660:
FREQ←550+RANDH(110,5*MAG);
6-8. Reverberators, Delays, and Filters
______________ _______ ___ _______
DELAY - Simple Delay:
_____ _ ______ _____
Argument list:
1 - Input
2 - Delay m
3 - Array (length ≥ m)
REV1 is the simple delay. This means that an input fed into the
delay appears at the output m samples later
Music Manual Unit Generators
REV1 - Comb Filter:
____ _ ____ ______
Argument list:
1 - Input
2 - Delay m
3 - Gain g
4 - Array (length ≥ m)
REV1 is the simple feed-back delay loop, or comb filter.
Mathematically its output is described by:
Y = X + g Y
n n n-m
where X is the input at time n and Y is the output at time n. This
n n
means that an input fed into the delay appears at the output m
samples later, and is multiplied by the gain, g and fed back into
delay (and thus will reappear another m samples later). The gain, g,
has better be less than 1 or the filter will not be stable (and most
likely generate the error message OUTn too big).(1)
____ ___ ___
REV2 - All-Pass Reverberator:
____ _ ________ ____________
Argument list:
1 - Input
2 - Delay m
3 - Gain g
4 - Array (length ≥ m)
REV2 is a first-order all-pass reverberator. It is an optimization
of Schroder's all-pass reverberator(2). Mathematically its output is
described by:
Y = g Y + X - g X
n n-m n-m n
_______________________
(1) For details, Chowning, J.M. et. al., Computer Simulation of Music
________ __________ __ _____
Instruments Tones in Reverberant Environments, Stanford Dept. of
___________ _____ __ ___________ ____________
Music Report No. STAN-M-1, pp. 73-74b, (June 1974)
(2) Schroder, M.R., Logan, B.F., Natural Sounding Reverbaration, J.
Audio Eng. Soc. 9 3, 192, July 1961
Music Manual Unit Generators
where X is the input at time n and Y is the output at time n. The
n n
all-pass has the property of passing all frequencies equally well and
is used for artificial reverberation. For details, please read
Computer Simulation of Music Instruments Tones in Reverberant
Environments by John Chowning, et. al. (1) Remember that the gain,
g, had better be less than 1 or the filter will not be stable (and
most likely generate the error message OUTn too big).
_______________________
(1) Stanford Dept. of Music Report No. STAN-M-1, pp. 47-55, pp. 75-76
(June 1974)
Music Manual
Section 7
_______ _
Built-in Functions
________ _________
7-1. SYNTH
_____
This is written in the MUSIC program's ALGOL and is found in the
initialization file, INIT.IRC. It allows arrays to be loaded with
the sum and/or product of sine waves. To use SYNTH, you must
dimension an array to the appropriate size (presently 512) and call
it with SYNTH(<array name>). You should then input four numbers:
1) the harmonic (denoted by H),
2) the amplitude (denoted by A),
3) the phase angle in degrees (denoted by P), and
4) a constant with is added to the amplitude (denoted by K).
If K is greater than 100 then it will multiply instead of add the
sine wave described. It is terminated by the single entry of 999 for
H.
7-2. SEG
___
Like SYNTH, this routine is found in INIT.IRC. It allows arrays to
be defined as line segments. To use it, you first must dimension
an array to the appropriate size (presently 512) and call the
function with SEG(<array name>). It expects input of two numbers,
the amplitude and the position in the array, on a scale from 0 to
100. It is terminated by the entry of 100 as a position.
There is a version of SYNTH and SEG which will save the array on a
file in a form which may be read by the MUSIC program. This is in an
external program called FUNC. It is mostly self-instructional. For
details see Leland Smith.
Music Manual Built-in Functions
7-4. SETMAG
________
SETMAG may be used to setup NCHNS, SRATE (the clock or sampling
rate), and MAG to their appropriate values. SETMAG is activated by
entering 'SETMAG; n1, n2' where n1 is the number of channels (NCHNS)
and n2 is the sampling rate (SRATE.). It then sets MAG to 512/SRATE.
___ _________
Available clock rates are 12800 and 25600. Clock rates less than 100
are multiplied by 1000 and to a nearby available rate. (i.e. 12
becomes 12800). The available SRATEs are 8000, 10000, 12800, 16000,
20000, 25600, 32000, 40000, 51200, 64000, 80000, 102400, 128000,
160000, 204800, 256000.
7-5. PRINT
_____
Argument list:
1 - Number to be printed
Prints an integer or floating point number. It is mostly obsolete
and is here for the use in compatablity (see Page 12). For use in
FORTRAN programs, there is a function called PNUM which is
____
approximately equivalent to PRINT. FORTRAN I/O is incompatable with
MUSCMP and attempts to use it will result in various errors like
ILLEGAL UUO AT XXX The difference in names is because the name PRINT
would conflict with FORTRAN.
Music Manual Built-in Functions
7-6. RDNUM
_____
Argument list:
1 - Variable to recieve number
Inputs a number from the current input device. Returns a floating
point number. Callable from ALGOL, (as FORTRAN I/O) is incompatable
with MUSCMP.
7-7. LENGTH
______
Argument list:
1 - Array or string
Returns the length of a string or array.
7-8. RAND
____
Argument list:
None
Generates pseudo-random numbers between -1 and 1(1).
_______________________
(1) The first time RAND is called, the number returned is a function
of the time and date.
Music Manual Built-in Functions
7-9. INT
___
Argument list:
1 - Number
Returns the integer part, or to be more precise the entier function.
For example:
INT(123.456)=123
INT(-123.45)=-124
7-10. FORTRAN Functions
_______ _________
The following functions are loaded from the FORTRAN Library:
SQRT(X) Square root
_______
SIN(X) Sine in radians
______
SIND(X) Sine in degrees
_______
COS(X) Cosine in radians
______
COSD(X) Cosine in degrees
_______
ALOG(X) Natural logarithm
_______
ALOG10(X) Logarithm base 10
_________
ABS(X) Absolute value
______
x
EXP(X) e
______
Music Manual
Section 8
_______ _
Computing sound
_________ _____
8-1. PLAY Block
____ _____
<play block> ::= PLAY; <play list> |
PLAY <filespec>; <play list>
<play list> ::= <instrument call>;<play list>|
<statement>;<play list>|
FINISH
<instrument call> ::= <instrument><parameter list>
<filespec> ::= <filename><switches>|
<filename>
<switches> ::= <switch><swiches>|<switch>
<switch> ::= /BYTESIZE=<number>|
/SOUND
The play list specifies when instruments are started, how long they
are to run, and what paramenters they are called with.
Music Manual Computing sound
8-2. Instrument Call
__________ ____
The rest of a PLAY block consists of instrument calls or statements.
A statement is as described in Section 10. An instrument call is
much like a function call. It consists of the name of an instrument,
followed by a list of parameter (or arguments). When an instrument
is called, the paramenters are placed in corresponding Pn variables
_
and the initialization code of the instrument is called. The
initialization code saves the Pn variables and preforms any
_
computations which only involve I-time variables (see Section ).
The rest of the instrument code is not run until a subsequent
instrument call is read and initialized which does not start at the
same time, or a FINISH statement is seen. Then each instrument is
run, one sample at a time, until the next instrument is to begin.
Then more instrument calls are read until the next one is found which
begins at a lster time, and the cycle is repeated until a FINISH
statement is seen and all instruments are finished. As an instrument
finishes, it is removed from the list of instruments to be run for
each sample.
Example:
Music Manual Computing sound
The following generates 1 second of a 440 Hz sine wave followed by
1/2 sec. of a 660Hz sine wave. The output goes to a file, MUSIC.MSB,
which is written on DSKM.
COMMENT Fill array with sine wave;
ARRAY SINETABLE[511];
FOR I←0 STEP 1 UNTIL 511 DO SINETABLE[I]←SIN(2*PI/512);
INSTRUMENT SINE;
COMMENT Generate simple sine wave. P4 = Amplitude, P3 = frequency;
OUTA←OUTA+OSCIL(P4,P3*MAG,SINETABLE);
END;
COMMENT Now, generate the sound;
PLAY ;
SIMP 0, 1, 440, 1000;
SIMP 1, 1/2, 660, 1000;
FINISH;
Arguments to instruments may be either numbers or array, and one must
be careful to use the right type, as the compiler does not check for
you! If you give an array instead of a number, you will merely get
meaningless results. However, if you give a number when an array is
expected, you will most likely get a message from the moniter such as
?
ERROR IN JOB 31
ILL MEM REF AT USER 7601
↑C
.
The first two parameters in an instrument call have a special meaning
to MUSIC. Traditionally the second two parameters are are also
special meaning, but could be used for any purpose. The meanings are
as follows:
P1 Begin time Time at which the instrument is started, in
seconds.
P2 Duration Length of time instrument will be run, in seconds.
P3 Frequency Typically fundemental frequence or pitch of
instrument [optional].
P4 Amplitude Typically maximum sample to be generated by this
instrument [optional].
Usually, arguments to instruments which are arrays usually appear at
the end of an instrument call. P3 and P4 are sometimes interchanged
so amplitude is P4 and frequency is P3.
Music Manual Computing sound
Because of the way instruments are compiled, it is not possible call
the same instrument twice during same time period. This is because
it has only one set of temperary variables.
8-3. FINISH statement
______ _________
A FINISH statement terminates a PLAY block. It causes all
______
instruments to run to completion and the output file to be closed.
(At IRCAM 'FINI' may be used in place of 'FINISH'.)
Music Manual
Appendix A
________ _
Syntax
______
Note: {<foo>} means there may be from 0 to ∞ occurances of <foo>.
<block> ::= BEGIN <declaration list>;<statement list>
<declaration list> ::= <declaration>;<declaration list>|
<declaration>
<statement list> ::= <statement>;<statement list>|END
<statement> ::= <function call>|<unit generator call>|
<assignment statement>|<block>
<WHILE statement>|<UNTIL statement>|
<FOR statement>|<conditional statement>|
<PRINT statement>
<function call> ::= <function>(<parameter list>)
<unit generator call> ::= <unit generator>(<parameter list>)|
<unit generator>[<expression>](<parameter list>)
<parameter list> ::= <parameter>,<parameter list>|<parameter>
<parameter> ::= <expression>|<array>|<string constant>
<FOR statement> ::= FOR <variable>←<expression> STEP
<expression> UNTIL <expression> DO
<statement>
<PRINT statement> ::= PRINT <print list>
<print list> ::= <expression>,<print list>|<expression>|
<string constant>,<print list>|
<string constant>
<WHILE statement> ::= WHILE <conditional> DO <statement>
<UNTIL statement> ::= DO <statement> UNTIL <conditional>
<assignment statement> ::= <variable>←<expression>
<play block> ::= PLAY; <play list> |
PLAY <filespec>; <play list>
<instrument call> ::= <instrument><parameter list>
<extended commands> ::= EXIT|P <integer>|PRINT <expression>;|
RESET|FREEZE|SPACE|DDT|
<declarator> LIST
<declarator> ::= VARIABLE|ARRAY|FUNCTION|INSTRUMENT|
UNIT_GENERATOR
<declaration> ::= <variable declaration>|
<array declaration>|
<function declaration>|
<instrument declaration>
<variable declaration> ::= VARIABLE <var. dec. list>
<var. dec. list> ::= <identifier>,<var. dec. list>|
/<identifier>,<var. dec. list>|
Music Manual Syntax
<identifier>|/<identifier>
<array declaration> ::= ARRAY <array decl. list>
<array decl. list> ::= <array decl. group>,<array decl. list>|
<array decl. group>
<array decl. group> ::= <variable>,<array decl. group>|
<variable>(<constant>)
<function declaration> ::= FUNCTION <identifier>(<formal list>)
<function tail>|
EXTERNAL FUNCTION <identifier>
(<formal list>)
<formal list> ::= <formal declaration>{,<formal list>}
<formal declaration> ::= ARRAY <identifier> |
INTEGER <identifier>|
STRING <identifier> |
<identifier>
<function tail> ::= ; <block> | = <expression>
<instrument declaration>::= INSTRUMENT <identifier>;
<declaration list>;<statement list>
<expression> ::= <term>|<term><addop><expression>
<term> ::= <factor>|<factor><mulop><term>
<factor> ::= <primary>
<primary> ::= -<primary>|(<expression>)|<variable>|
<function call>|<unit generator call>|
<array name>(<expression>)|<constant>
<variable>←<expression>
<addop> ::= +|-
<mulop> ::= *|/
<variable> ::= <letter><var tail>|<letter>
<var tail> ::= <alphanumeric><var tail>|<alphanumeric>
<alphanumeric> ::= <letter>|<number>
<letter> ::= A|B|C|...Z|_|$|#
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|...9
Music Manual
Appendix B
________ _
Reserved Words
________ _____
ARRAY EXIT INTEGER RPRINT
SAVCNT
BEGIN EXTERNAL LENGTH STEP
BITS FINISH(or FINI) LIST STRING
NOMSG
COMMENT FOR PI THEN
DONE FUNCTION PLAY UNIT!GENERATOR
DO I!ONLY PRINT UNTIL
ELSE IF R!PRINT VARIABLE
INFILE
INFIL2
INFIL3
INFIL4
END INSTRUMENT RETURN WHILE
Music Manual
Appendix C
________ _
Predefined Symbols
__________ _______
ABS Function Returns absolute value of number
ARRBLT Function Copies N elements between two arrays
BITS Variable Sets the bit size of each sample.
COSCIL Unit generator Oscillator which remembers pointer between
instrument calls
CZOSCIL Unit generator Interpolating version of COSCIL
DEBUGFLAG Variable Enables various compiler debugging
features
DELAY Unit Generator Simple Delay
EXPEN Unit Generator Oscillator which doesn't wrap around
INFILE String Input (readin) file name 1.
INFIL2 " " " " " 2.
INFIL3 " " " " " 3.
INFIL4 " " " " " 4.
INT Function Returns integer part of floating point
number
INTRP Unit generator Interpolator driven by oscillator
LINEN Unit Generator Three part oscillator
LSBUF Variable Current size of DAC buffer
MAXSMP Variable Maximum sample seen
NCHNS Variable Number of channels active
NOMSG Variable If nonzero, disable compiler messages
NOSCA Unit generator Oscillator with starting point given
NOSCIL Unit Generator Oscillator which accepts negative
increments
OSCIL Unit generator Simple oscillator
OUT Unit Generator Equivalent to OUTA←OUTA+X
OUT2 Unit Generator Equivalent to FUNCTION OUT2(X,CH1,CH2);
________ ________________
BEGIN OUTA←OUTA+X*CH1; OUTB←OUTB+X*CH2;
_____ ________________ ________________
END;
____
OUTA Variable Output channel A
OUTB Variable Output channel B
OUTC Variable Output channel C
OUTD Variable Output channel D
OUTFILE String Output file name specification.
P_ARRAY Array P1,P2,P3,...
RAND Function Returns a pseduo-random number between -1
and 1
RANDH Unit generator Oscillator controlled random numbers with
hold
RANDI Unit generator Oscillator controlled random numbers with
interpolation
Music Manual Predefined Symbols
REV1 Unit Generator Comb Filter (Reverberator)
REV2 Unit Generator All-Pass Reverberator
REVINIT Unit generator If nonzero, reverberator arrays are zeroed
when initialized
SRATE Variable Sampling rate
SAVCNT Variable Number of records written between "saves".
VALUE Unit generator Returns its first argument
VFMULT Unit Generator Multiplies amplitude by array element
ZEXPEN Unit Generator Interpolating oscillator without wrap
around
ZINTRP Unit generator Interpolator driven by interpolating
oscillator
ZOSCA Unit generator Interpolating oscillator with starting
point given
ZOSCIL Unit generator Interpolating oscillator
Music Manual
Appendix D
________ _
Error Messages.
A simple statement inside a 'COMPILE' section just wastes space!
It will never be executed.
ARRGH! INIT with WAITBIT gave error return!?!!
Horrible system error. Shouldn't happen
Array expected in function or U.G. call, but number found instead.
Prob. argument to instrument wrong.
Either a function or Unit Generator was called with a Pn symbol,
which should have be an array, but instead a floating point number
was found. This is usually caused by passing a number instead of an
array in an instrument call, or an error in the instrument with
respect to the numbering of the Pn arguments.
Attempt to call unit generator at I-Time
Unit generators always run at least partially in R-Time. What has
probably happened was that this unit generator call somehow managed
to find its way inside an I!ONLY statement, which can easily happen
if you leave out an END from the construct I!ONLY BEGIN...
Attempt to do numeric operation on a string!
String comparison not implemented.
Attempt to do numeric operation on a string!
You have given a string to a numeric operator, such as '+', '-', '*',
'/', '>', etc.
Attempt to reference unit generator output at I-Time
Unit generators output values at R-time, thus at I-time, the output
of a unit generator is undefined.
Byte size not 12 or 18 bits for DAC
Other byte sizes are not handled by this device. Will use a 12-bit
bytesize anyway (caveat).
C O M P I L E R E R R O R ! ! ! Get TOVAR or save this core image
and A COPY OF THE INPUT FILE and leave a message by saying MAIL
TVR!!!
Something unexpected has happened which would probably should be
looked at as it is most likely a bug.
Music Manual Error Messages.
Can't INIT DSK!
_____ ____ ____
An unlikely situation.
Can't INIT TTY!
_____ ____ ____
An unlikely situation.
Can't OPEN output file
_____ ____ ______ ____
Usually this means the file is protected or already being written.
Can't expand core!
_____ ______ _____
Could get enough core. You lose.
Can't expand core
_____ ______ ____
Can't have an R-time statement controlled by an I-time conditional
_____ ____ __ ______ _________ __________ __ __ ______ ___________
The DO ... UNTIL statement will never terminate under such
circumstances.
Can't re-INIT output device.
_____ _______ ______ _______
Someone else it probably using it.
Can't reduce core!
_____ ______ _____
Shouldn't happen.
Can't setup buffers for output
_____ _____ _______ ___ ______
This error is probably due to some change to I/O in system.
DONE statement illegal here
____ _________ _______ ____
Dangling ELSE or extraneous ';' in IF...THEN...ELSE statement
________ ____ __ __________ ___ __ ________________ _________
Music Manual Error Messages.
The statement following the 'THEN' in a IF...THEN...ELSE statement is
terminated by the ELSE and should not have a semicolon after it.
Declarations should be made at start of block
____________ ______ __ ____ __ _____ __ _____
You may continue from this error.
Dimension should be a number
_________ ______ __ _ ______
Dynamic arrays are not implimented.
ERROR IN READING THE BITMAP/DIRECTORY
_____ __ _______ ___ ________________
ERROR IN SETTING UP BUFFER RINGS
_____ __ _______ __ ______ _____
ERROR IN WRITING BITMAP!
_____ __ _______ _______
EXIT statement illegal outside of block
____ _________ _______ _______ __ _____
EXPRESSION TOO COMPLEX, MAY BE A COMPILER BUG
__________ ___ ________ ___ __ _ ________ ___
Expected to find a '←' here
________ __ ____ _ ___ ____
The compiler assumed you had begun an assignment statement.
External functions only, please
________ _________ _____ ______
The compiler does not know about anything else being external.
Forward ref. to unit generator
_______ ____ __ ____ _________
You have most likely referenced the output of a unit generator which
have not been defined yet. [If there are no Un symbols in the
expression, it may be a compiler bug.]
ILLEGAL DEBUGFLAG SETTING
_______ _________ _______
ILLEGAL FILE NAME
_______ ____ ____
ILLEGAL FORMAL PARAMETER
_______ ______ _________
IMPROPER ARRAY PARAMETER
________ _____ _________
IMPROPER STRING PARAMETER
________ ______ _________
INIT failed for that device
____ ______ ___ ____ ______
INPUT ERROR
_____ _____
Music Manual Error Messages.
INTEGERS PRESENTLY ALLOWED ONLY FOR EXTERNAL FUNCTIONS, SORRY
________ _________ _______ ____ ___ ________ __________ _____
Illegal byte size, ignored
_______ ____ _____ _______
Illegal character in number
_______ _________ __ ______
Not a digit or decimal point.
Illegal character
_______ _________
A character was found in file which has no meaning to the compiler.
Illegal declaration
_______ ___________
You may not make a declaration of type UNIT_GENERATOR, STRING or
INTEGER.
Illegal primary
_______ _______
Illegal primary
_______ _______
Should be a number, variable, array or function call.
____ ____ _____
Missing '(' after array
_______ ___ _____ _____
You are probably trying to use a array as a variable. Arrays must be
subscripted.
Missing '(' in array declaration
_______ ___ __ _____ ___________
Missing '(' in function call
_______ ___ __ ________ ____
Missing ')' after array subscript
_______ ___ _____ _____ _________
Missing ')' in array declaration
_______ ___ __ _____ ___________
Missing ')' in expression
_______ ___ __ __________
Unbalanced parentheses or missing operator in expression.
Missing ')' in function definition
_______ ___ __ ________ __________
Missing ')' or too many parameters in function call
_______ ___ __ ___ ____ __________ __ ________ ____
Missing ';' or '=' in function definition
_______ ___ __ ___ __ ________ __________
Missing ';'
_______ ___
Music Manual Error Messages.
Missing ';'
_______ ___
Statements should be terminated with a semicolon
Missing 'BEGIN' in function definition
_______ _______ __ ________ __________
Missing 'DO' in FOR
_______ ____ __ ___
Missing 'END'
_______ _____
Missing 'STEP' in FOR
_______ ______ __ ___
Missing 'THEN'
_______ ______
'THEN' Missing in IF...THEN...ELSE Statement.
Missing 'UNTIL' in FOR
_______ _______ __ ___
Missing 'UNTIL'
_______ _______
UNTIL missing from DO ... UNTIL statement or extraneous ';'.
Missing ']' in unit generator call
_______ ___ __ ____ _________ ____
Missing '←' in FOR
_______ ___ __ ___
Missing DO in WHILE statement
_______ __ __ _____ _________
Missing END
_______ ___
FINISH statement giving inside a block.
Missing External function
_______ ________ ________
Either an external function was not loaded or its name was
misspelled.
Missing IDENTIFIER
_______ __________
Multiply defined symboi
________ _______ ______
Multiply dimensional array not implimented, sorry
________ ___________ _____ ___ ____________ _____
Multiply dimensioned arrays not implemented
________ ___________ ______ ___ ___________
You may also have confused an array name with a function name.
NEGATIVE INC. TO OSCIL
________ ____ __ _____
OSCIL is not defined to go accept a negative increment however if you
continue from this error it will treat this increment as a NOSCIL
does.
Music Manual Error Messages.
NOT ALLOWED IN 'PLAY' SECTION
___ _______ __ ______ _______
NUMERIC ARGUMENT REQUIRED HERE
_______ ________ ________ ____
A string was found where a numberic argument was expected.
Negative increment to LINEN
________ _________ __ _____
LINEN is undefined for negative increments. The results may be
unpredicatable.
Negative increment to ZEXPEN
________ _________ __ ______
ZEXPEN is undefined for negative increments however if you contiune
it will treat it like a ZOSCIL.
OUTn too big, clipped
____ ___ ____ _______
Sample just computed was too big to represent in the byte size
currently being used for output. This usually is indicative of some
problem in an instrument.
Output error?
______ ______
Error detected while writing out sample buffer
Parameter number, Pn, too big
_________ _______ ___ ___ ___
The 'n' in 'Pn' is larger than the number of parameters allowed for
instrument calls. This number could be increased upon demand.
R-Time condition for I-Time Statement in WHILE statement
______ _________ ___ ______ _________ __ _____ _________
No R-Time code was generated after an R-Time conditional. It is
most likely that this will result in an infinite loop!
R-Time conditional for I-time IF-THEN-ELSE statement
______ ___________ ___ ______ ____________ _________
No R-time code was generated after an R-Time conditional. Therefore
the IF-THEN statement acts as if the condition were always true for
the 'THEN' clause and always false for the 'ELSE' clause!
RETURN statement illegal outside of function definition
______ _________ _______ _______ __ ________ __________
Only functions may return a value. Use EXIT to leave a block.
STRING REQUIRED HERE
______ ________ ____
Something other than a string found as an argument to a function
which expected a string as (one of) its arguments.
Music Manual Error Messages.
Simple variable required here
______ ________ ________ ____
FOR loops expect a simple variable, i.e. not an array.
Storage full!
_______ _____
String too long or missing "
______ ___ ____ __ _______ _
Strings have a limited length.
Subscript out of bounds at compile time.
_________ ___ __ ______ __ _______ _____
You have a subscript expression which evaluates to a constant which
is either too large or too small.
This feature can not be used on DEC systems yet. Sorry.
____ _______ ___ ___ __ ____ __ ___ _______ ____ ______
There are some things you can do at Stanford that you can not do
elsewhere.
This isn't FORTRASH. Use a '←' assignment next time
____ _____ _________ ___ _ ___ __________ ____ ____
However '=' will be accepted under protest.
Too few arguments in function call
___ ___ _________ __ ________ ____
Too many END statements
___ ____ ___ __________
Too many parameters in function call
___ ____ __________ __ ________ ____
Type mismatch for assignment
____ ________ ___ __________
You are trying to assign a string to a numeric variable or a number
to a string variable!
UNDEFINED IDENTIFIER
_________ __________
UNDEFINED IDENTIFIER
_________ __________
An identifier was used before it was declared.
Undefined IDENTIFIER
_________ __________
Unexpected symbol beginning a statement
__________ ______ _________ _ _________
It will be ignored and attempt to continue compilation.
Unimplimented operation
_____________ _________
AND and OR are not implimented.
Music Manual Error Messages.
Unit Generator call illegal outside of instrument definition
____ _________ ____ _______ _______ __ __________ __________
Unit generators are only to be used inside of instruments as they
require special initialization at I-time.
Unit generator call illegal outside of instrument definition
____ _________ ____ _______ _______ __ __________ __________
Unit generators are only to be used inside of instruments as they
require special initialization at I-time.
Use of two relational operator is illegal here
___ __ ___ __________ ________ __ _______ ____
The compiler doesn't know how to deal with expression like '2>X>9'.
Write it as two conditions.
You are calling an instrument which is already running!
___ ___ _______ __ __________ _____ __ _______ ________
Since the code generated for instruments is non-reentrant, you should
not call it with overlapping time periods as this will produce
unpredicable results. Instead you should make a copy of with a
different name (and different variable names if they are declared
outside that instrument).
You can't subscript an array with a string!
___ _____ _________ __ _____ ____ _ _______
An array can only be subscripted by something that evaluates to be a
number.
Music Manual
Appendix E
________ _
Recent improvements to MUSIC
_______ _____ _____
Array elements may be individually referenced. This allows complex
waveforms to be described by arbitrarily complex mathematic
expression, instead of the previous restrictions to combination of
sine waves or approximation by line segments.
There is a new set of statements and block structure added. These
statements include IF, WHILE, UNTIL and FOR statements. A print
statement has been added which allows literal strings so that
messages may be printed as well as numbers, which are now printed in
floating point notation. The literal strings may also be passed to
functions. In order to use certain routines in the FORTRAN Library,
the data type INTEGER has been added but is currently limited to the
external functions until type conversion code can be added to the
compiler.
Functions may now be blocks as well as expressions.
To make debugging the compiler easier, a special debugging mode has
been added.
Music Manual
I N D E X
(References are to page numbers)
ABS 30 Function Call 11, 13
Absolute value 30 Function Declaration 8
All-Pass Reverberator 24
ALOG 30 identifier 6
argument 8 increment 21
Array Declaration 7 index 12
Array Subscripting 7, 11 Instrument Call 31, 32
Assignment statement 8, 14 Instrument Declaration 6
BEGIN 16 INT 30
BITS 38 Integer 7
Block 16, 17 INTRP 22
called by reference 8 LENGTH 29
Comb Filter 25 LINEN 20
Controlled Calling Rates 19 LIST 18
COS 30 local variable 16
COSCIL 21 local variables 8
Cosine 30 Logarithm 30
CZOSCIL 23
DDT 18
Declaration 6, 7, 8, 9
DELAY 24 NOSCA 22
NOSCIL 21
DONE 17
OSCIL 21
END 16
EXCISE 18 P_Array 6
EXIT 17, 18 P-variables 7
EXP 30 parameters 8, 11
EXPEN 22 Play 18
Exponent 30
Expressions 11 PRINT 15, 18, 26
Extended Commands 18
External 9
FINISH statement 33, 34 RAND 29
FOR 15, 17 RANDH 24
formal parameter 8 RANDI 24
FORTRAN 9 Random numbers 29
RDNUM 29
Music Manual
Real 7
Relational operators 10
Reserved Words 37
RETURN 9, 17
REV1 25
REV2 25
SEE 28
SEG 27
SETMAG 28
Simple Delay 24
SIN 30
Sine 30
Special variables 6
SQRT 30
Square root 30
Statement 13, 14, 15, 16, 17
String 7, 15
subroutine 11, 13
subscript 12
Symbol Table 18
Syntax 35, 36
SYNTH 27
U-variables 6, 11, 14
Unit Generator 19, 21, 22, 23,
24, 25, 26
Unit Generator Call 11, 13
UNTIL 14, 17
VALUE 20
Variable Declaration 6
VFMULT 19
WHILE 14, 17
ZEXPEN 23
ZINTRP 23
ZOSCA 23
ZOSCIL 23